Click here to return to the Whirlwind World History Curriculum Online Textbook table of contents.
The Assyrian Empire (c. 900-612 BCE)
The Assyrian Empire, which saw its height of power at the end of the first millennium to the seventh century BCE, was larger than any empire that preceded it.
At first, the Akkadian Empire (described in the chapter about Mesopotamia) united Assyrian, Babylonian, and Sumerian speakers under one rule (remember Sargon?). After the fall of the Akkadian Empire, the people of Mesopotamia eventually coalesced (came together) into two major Akkadian-speaking nations: Assyria in the north, and, a few centuries later, Babylonia in the south.
In this map of the Akkadian Empire, there is no Assyria.
After the Akkadian Empire fell apart there was Assyria in the north and Babylonia in the south. You can also see the Hittite Empire, the Mitanni, and the territory held by the Egyptians at the time.
Alone of the major states of the Bronze Age, the Assyrian kingdom in northern Mesopotamia survived. Probably because of their extreme focus on militarism, the Assyrians were able to hold on to their core cities while the states around them collapsed. During the Iron Age, the Assyrians became the most powerful empire the world had ever seen.
The Assyrians were the first empire in world history to systematically conquer almost all of their neighbors using a powerful standing army and go on to control the conquered territory for hundreds of years.
The Assyrians were shaped by their environment. Their region in northern Mesopotamia, Ashur, has no natural borders, and thus they needed a strong military to survive; they were constantly forced to fight other civilized peoples from the west and south, and barbarians from the north. The Assyrians held that their patron god, a god of war also called Ashur, demanded the subservience of other peoples and their respective gods.
Thus, their conquests were justified by their religious beliefs as well as a straightforward desire for dominance. Eventually, they dispatched annual military expeditions and organized conscription, fielding large standing armies of native Assyrian soldiers who marched out every year to conquer more territory.
The period of political breakdown in Mesopotamia following the collapse of the Bronze Age ended in about 880 BCE when the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II began a series of wars to conquer Mesopotamia and Canaan. Over the next century, the Assyrians became the mightiest empire yet seen in the Middle East.
They used siege warfare, along with battering rams, tunnels, and moveable towers, to get past the defenses of cities. As part of their military strategy, the Assyrians purposefully tried to inspire fear in their enemies; they decapitated conquered kings, burnt cities to the ground, destroyed crops, and dismembered defeated enemy soldiers.
They would deport whole towns or even small cities when they defied the will of the Assyrian kings, resettling conquered peoples as indentured workers far from their homelands. They tortured and mutilated defeated enemies, even skinning them alive, when faced with any threat of resistance or rebellion.
One Assyrian soldier claimed:
“In strife and conflict I besieged [and] conquered the city. I felled 3,000 of their fighting men with the sword…I captured many troops alive: I cut off of some of their arms [and] hands; I cut off of others their noses, ears, [and] extremities. I gouged out the eyes of many troops. I made one pile of the living [and] one of heads. I hung their heads on trees around the city.“
The formerly-independent Phoenician city-states within the Assyrian zone of control surrendered, paid tribute, and deferred to Assyrian officials rather than face their wrath in battle.
The Assyrians were the most effective military force of the ancient world up to that point. All free male citizens were obliged to serve in the army for a time, a system which was called the ilku-service. They outfitted their large armies with well-made iron weapons (they appear to be the first major kingdom to manufacture iron weapons in large numbers). They invented a messenger service to maintain lines of communication and control, with messengers on horseback and waystations to replace tired horses, so that they could communicate across their empire. All of their conquered territories were obliged to provide annual tributes of wealth in precious metals and trade goods which funded the state and the military.
The Assyrians introduced two innovations in military technology and organization that were of critical importance: a permanent cavalry, the first of any state in the world, and a large standing army of trained infantry. It took until the middle of the eighth century BCE for selective breeding of horses to produce real “war horses” large enough to carry a heavily armed and armored man into and through an entire battle. The Assyrians adopted horse archery from the barbarians they fought from the north, which along with swords and short lances wielded from horseback made chariots permanently obsolete. The major focus of Assyrian taxation and bureaucracy was to keep the army funded and trained, which allowed them to completely dominate their neighbors for well over a century.
By the time of the reign of Assyrian king Tiglath-Pilezer III (r. 745 – 727 BCE), the Assyrians had pushed their borders to the Mediterranean in the west and to Persia (present-day Iran) in the east.
Their conquests culminated in 671 BCE when king Esarhaddon (r. 681 – 668 BCE) invaded Egypt and conquered not only the entire Egyptian kingdom, but northern Nubia as well. This is the first time in history that both of the founding river valleys of ancient civilization, those of the Nile and of Mesopotamia, were under the control of a single political entity.
Here’s a map of the Assyrian Empire at its height:
After conquering an area, the Assyrians conscripted men into their army, and employed resettlement and deportation as techniques to get laborers where they wanted them and deal with communities who opposed their regime. They also collected annual tributes that were apparently high enough to, at least occasionally, spur rebellions despite the Assyrians’ reputation for violent retribution.
In addition to its military strength, the Assyrian empire also stands out for the size of its cities and its administrative developments. The empire’s biggest cities, such as Nineveh and Assur, each had several million people living within them.
A legal code was produced during the 14th and 13th centuries which, among other things, clearly shows that the social position of women in Assyria was lower than that of neighboring societies. Men were permitted to divorce their wives with no compensation paid to the latter. If a woman committed adultery, she could be beaten or put to death. The women of the king’s harem and their servants were also subject to harsh punishments, such as beatings, mutilation, and death. Assyria, in general, had much harsher laws than most of the region. Executions were not uncommon, nor were whippings followed by forced labor.
While their subjects experienced Assyrian rule as militarily-enforced tyranny, Assyrian kings were proud of the cultural and intellectual heritage of Mesopotamia and supported learning and scholarship. The one conquered city in their empire that was allowed a significant degree of autonomy was Babylon, out of respect for its role as a center of Mesopotamian culture. Assyrian scribes collected and copied the learning and literature of the entire Middle East. Sometime after 660 BCE, the king Asshurbanipal ordered the collection of all of the texts of all of his kingdom, including the ones from conquered lands, and he went on to create a massive library to house them. Parts of this library survived and provide one of the most important sources of information that scholars have on the beliefs, languages, and literature of the ancient Middle East.
The monument of Ashurnasirpal II, who was king of Assyria from 883 to 859 BC, describes his conquest of one city states:
“Of some, I cut off their feet and hands; of others I cut off their ears, noses and lips; of the young men’s ears I made a heap; of the old men’s heads I made a minaret. . . . The male children and female children I burned in the flames of the city.”
Ultimately, the Assyrian Empire became too large to control; rebellions occurred with more frequency and were difficult for its overextended military to quell. The Assyrians finally fell in 609 BCE, overthrown by a series of rebellions. Their control of Egypt lasted barely two generations, brought to an end when the puppet pharaoh put in place by the Assyrians rebelled and drove them from Egypt. Shortly thereafter, a Babylonian king, Nabopolassar, led a rebellion that finally succeeded in sacking Nineveh, the Assyrian capital. The Babylonians were allied with clans of horse-riding warriors in Persia called the Medes, and between them the Assyrian state was destroyed completely. Nabopolassar went on to found the “Neo-Babylonian” empire, which became the most important power in Mesopotamia for the next few generations.
The New (Neo) Babylonian Empire (c. 626 – 539 BCE)
With the weakening of the Assyrian Empire, the New Babylonian Empire (historically known as the Chaldean Empire) began to dominate Mesopotamia.
The Neo-Babylonians adopted some of the terror tactics of the Assyrians; they, too, deported conquered enemies as servants and slaves. Where they differed, however, was in their focus on trade. They built new roads and canals and encouraged long-distance trade throughout their lands. They were often at war with Egypt, which also tried to take advantage of the fall of the Assyrians to seize new land, but even when the two powers were at war Egyptian merchants were still welcome throughout the Neo-Babylonian empire.
Nebuchadnezzar II (ruled from 605 to 562 BCE)
Lasting for less than 100 years, the New Babylonian Empire is best known for its ruler, Nebuchadnezzar II, and its great architectural projects. As described in the Hebrew Scriptures (also known as the Old Testament), Nebuchadnezzar II was a ruthless leader. He gained notoriety for destroying the city of Jerusalem and deporting many of the city’s Jews to Babylon. The captive Jews suffered in exile, as they were not allowed to return to their homeland. Nebuchadnezzar II also rebuilt Babylon with fortresses, temples, and enormous palaces. He associated the New Babylonian Empire with the glory of ancient Babylonia by reviving elements of Sumerian and Akkadian culture.
Some scholars claim that Nebuchadnezzar is responsible for building the famous Tower of Babel described in the Old Testament.
However, most Christians believe this is not possible since the Tower of Babel is mentioned in the book of Genesis (the first book in the Christian Bible), and the author of Genesis is believed to be Moses who lived centuries before Nebuchadnezzar. This interesting article from the Armstrong Institute of Biblical Archaeology explains the connection between Nebuchadnezzar and the tower and shows how artifacts and their translations back up the biblical account: https://armstronginstitute.org/125-nebuchadnezzars-tower-of-babel. Nebuchadnezzar’s cylinder inscriptions affirm that the tower he constructed was built as an attempt to complete the most ancient [and unfinished] monument in Babylon (the Tower of Babel).
Quoted from the link above:
“Rawlinson (known as the father of Assyriology) translated the inscriptions as follows:
I am Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon … my great lord has established me in strength, and has urged me to repair his buildings … the Tower of Babylon, I have made and finished … the Tower of Borsippa had been built by a former king. He had completed 42 [cubits?], but he did not finish its head; from the lapse of time it had become ruined … the rain and wet had penetrated into the brickwork; the casing of burnt brick had bulged out … Merodach, my great lord, inclined my heart to repair the building. I did not change its site, nor did I destroy its foundation platform; but, in a fortunate month, and upon an auspicious day, I undertook the rebuilding … I set my hand to build it up, and to finish its summit. As it had been in ancient times, so I built up its structure ….
There is another translation of this text that is even more direct in language. This one comes from Rawlinson’s contemporary Assyriologist, Julius Oppert. He translates a couple of lines slightly differently:
… the most ancient monument of Babylon; I built and finished it … A former king built it—they reckon 42 ages [ago]—but he did not complete its head. Since a remote time, people had abandoned it without order expressing their words ….
As translated above, Nebuchadnezzar literally calls this monument the Tower of Babylon. (“Babylon” is interchangeable with Babel.) He describes this tower as an important ancient Babylonian edifice built by a “former king” that, for some reason or other, the workers stopped short in finishing—they “did not finish its head.” Why not? Some clue could be taken from the second name Nebuchadnezzar gives for this tower: the Tower of Borsippa. Borsippa literally means tongue tower, thus providing a link to language.”
End quote.
There are lots of other interesting details in the article linked above! Check it out, if you want to read more.
Another one of Nebuchadnezzar’s purported projects, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, was considered by the later Greek historian Herodotus to be one of the Seven Wonders of the World. According to legend, Nebuchadnezzar had the hanging gardens built for his wife. He made the desert bloom to remind her of her distant homeland; the elaborate gardens planted on rooftops and terraces were designed so that the plants’ leaves would spill down high walls.
The Babylonians inherited the scientific traditions of ancient Mesopotamia, becoming the greatest astronomers and mathematicians yet seen, able to predict eclipses and keep highly detailed calendars. They also created the zodiac used up to the present in astrology, reflecting the age-old practice of both science and “magic” that were united in the minds of Mesopotamians. In the end, however, they were the last of the great ancient Mesopotamian empires that existed independently. Less than 100 years after their successful rebellion against the Assyrians and after the death of Nebuchadnezzar II, they were conquered by what became the greatest empire in the ancient world to date: the Persians
We want to know what you thought of what you just read and watched! Leave us a comment! Please also let us know if a link or video isn’t working. ?
Next: Greece
Credits:
Assyrian clothing: By by Albert Kretschmer, painters and costumer to the Royal Court Theatre, Berin, and Dr. Carl Rohrbach. – Costumes of All Nations (1882), Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=17037480
Assyrian Empire 1: By Свифт/Svift – Own work, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=28466128
Assyrian Empire 2: Author: User “Ningyou” Source: Wikimedia Commons License: Public Domain
Hanging Gardens of Babylon: By Maarten van Heemskerck – http://www.plinia.net/wonders/gardens/hgpix1.html, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=65909
Neo Babylon Empire map: By Empire_neo_babyloien.svg: *Middle_East_topographic_map-blank.svg: Sémhur (talk)derivative work: Zunkir (talk)derivative work: Zunkir (talk) – Empire_neo_babyloien.svg, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=12098149
Cyrus the Great invasion map: By ChrisO – Derived from Image:Hammurabi’s Babylonia 1.svg, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5061120
Akkadian Empire info: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkadian_Empire
Ashurnasirpal II: By Andres Rueda – Alabaster Stela of the Asirian King Ashurnasirpal II (884-859 BC) – British Museum, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=25083431
Ninevah: By Austen Henry Layard – British Museum, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=91148158
This text was adapted (with permission) from:
- Western Civilization: A Concise History – Volumes 1-3
by Dr. Christopher Brooks
CC BY-NC-SA - World History Cultures, States, and Societies to 1500
by Eugene Berger, Ph.D, George L. Israel, Ph.D., Charlotte Miller, Ph.D., Brian Parkinson, Ph.D., Andrew Reeves, Ph.D, and Nadejda Williams, Ph.D.
CC BY-SA - Modern World History
by Dan Allosso, Bemidji State University and Tom Williford, Southwest Minnesota State University
CC BY-NC-SA
I’ve taken excerpts from the above-mentioned resources and heavily edited and added to them for my intended audience. While I’ve received permission to use/adapt these books, none of the above endorses Guest Hollow or my use of their materials.
Information was also taken from Wikipedia under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License and other resources (listed in the individual page credits).
This online book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
Beowulf the Fox Terrier dog and the Greek & Latin roots graphic © Jennifer Guest
Howdy! So, the tower of Babel could not have been built by Nebuchadnezzar if we are to trust the accuracy of the Bible. As Moses, the one who wrote about the Tower of Babel lived centuries before Nebuchadnezzar.
Thanks for the comment! You are correct. We found a great article to link to with some interesting info. Thanks so much for pointing this out! 🙂 We so appreciate you!